Two consecutive question marks signify the start of a trigraph sequence. According to the C Standard, subclause 5.2.1.1 [ISO/IEC 9899:2011],

All occurrences in a source file of the following sequences of three characters (that is, trigraph sequences) are replaced with the corresponding single character.

??=	#		??)	]		??!	|
??(	[		??'	^		??>	}
??/	\		??<	{		??-	~

Noncompliant Code Example

In this noncompliant code example, a++ is not executed because the trigraph sequence ??/ is replaced by \, logically putting a++ on the same line as the comment:

// What is the value of a now??/
a++;

Compliant Solution

This compliant solution eliminates the accidental introduction of the trigraph by separating the question marks:

// What is the value of a now? ?/
a++;

Noncompliant Code Example

This noncompliant code example includes the trigraph sequence ??!, which is replaced by the character |:

size_t i = /* Some initial value */;
if (i > 9000) {
   if (puts("Over 9000!??!") == EOF) {
     /* Handle error */
   }
}

This example prints Over 9000!| if a C-compliant compiler is used.

Compliant Solution

This compliant solution uses string concatenation to concatenate the two question marks; otherwise, they are interpreted as beginning a trigraph sequence:

size_t i = /* Some initial value */;
/* Assignment of i */
if (i > 9000) {
   if (puts("Over 9000!?""?!") == EOF) {
     /* Handle error */
   }
}

This code prints Over 9000!??!, as intended.

Risk Assessment

Inadvertent trigraphs can result in unexpected behavior. Some compilers provide options to warn when trigraphs are encountered or to disable trigraph expansion. Use the warning options, and ensure your code compiles cleanly. (See MSC00-C. Compile cleanly at high warning levels.)

Automated Detection

Tool	Version	Checker	Description
Astrée		trigraph	Fully checked
Axivion Bauhaus Suite		CertC-PRE07
ECLAIR		CC2.PRE07	Fully implemented
GCC			Can detect violation of this recommendation when the -Wtrigraphs flag is used
Helix QAC		C3601
LDRA tool suite		81 S	Fully implemented
Parasoft C/C++test		CERT_C-PRE07-a	Trigraphs shall not be used
PC-lint Plus		584, 854, 9060	Fully supported
Polyspace Bug Finder		CERT C: Rec. PRE07-C	Checks for use of trigraphs (rec. fully covered)
RuleChecker		trigraph	Fully checked
SonarQube C/C++ Plugin		TrigraphUsage

Related Vulnerabilities

Search for vulnerabilities resulting from the violation of this rule on the CERT website.

Related Guidelines

Bibliography